Chapter
10 - Members and Leaders in Small Group Communication
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be
able to:
·
Explain the role of culture in small group communication
and define and distinguish between individual and collective orientations and
high- and low-power distances.
·
Describe and distinguish among group task roles, group
building/maintenance roles, and individual roles and serve (or avoid) these
roles for effective member participation.
·
Define leadership, explain its myths, the approaches to
leadership, and the general styles of leadership; and apply the skills for
effective small group leadership.
As you saw in Chapter 9, you're a part of
many different groups, and you serve a wide variety of roles and functions in
these groups. This chapter focuses on both membership and leadership in small
groups. By gaining insight into these roles and functions, you'll increase your
own effectiveness as a group member and leader. A good way to begin is to look
at how both membership and leadership are viewed differently in different
cultures.
Membership, Leadership, and Culture
Because most of the research (and also the
resulting theory) concerning small group communication, membership, and
leadership has been conducted in universities in the United States and reflects
U.S. culture, it's important that we look at both membership and leadership
from the point of view of different cultures. All cultures maintain their own
belief systems, which influence group members' behavior. Members of many Asian
cultures, influenced by Confucian principles, believe that "the protruding
nail gets pounded down" and are therefore not likely to voice disagreement
with the majority of the group. Members of U.S. culture, on the other hand,
influenced by the axiom that "the squeaky wheel gets the grease," are
likely to voice disagreement or to act in ways different from other group
members in order to get what they want. All cultures also have their own rules
of preferred and expected leadership style. In the United States, the general
and expected style for a group leader is democratic. Our political leaders are
elected by a democratic process; similarly, company directors are elected by
the shareholders of their corporations. In other situations, of course, leaders
are chosen by those in authority. The president of a company will normally
decide who will supervise and who will be supervised. Even in this situation,
however, the supervisor is expected to behave democratically: to listen to the
ideas of the employees; to take their views into consideration when decisions
are to be made; to keep them informed of corporate developments; and not to discriminate
on the basis of sex, race, or affectional orientation. In the United States
people expect that organizational and other group leader’s will he changed
fairly regularly, much as we change political leaders on a regular basis. In
some other cultures, leaders get their positions by right of birth. They are
not elected, nor are they expected to behave democratically.
INDIVIDUAL AND COLLECTIVE ORIENTATIONS
Small group cultures and cultures in general
differ in the extent to which they promote individualistic values (e.g., power.
achievement, hedonism, and stimulation) versus collectivist values (e.g.,
benevolence, tradition, and conformity). One of the major differences between
an individual orientation and a collective orientation is in the extent to
which an individual's goals or the group's goals are given precedence.
Individual and collective tendencies are, of course, not mutually exclusive;
this is not an all-or-none orientation, but rather one of emphasis. You
probably have both tendencies.
Thus, you may, for example, compete with
other members of your basketball team to make the most baskets; hut in a game,
you'd likely act in a way that will benefit the entire team (and thus emphasize
group goals). In practice, both individual and collective tendencies will help
both you and your team achieve your goals. Still, most people and most cultures
have a dominant orientation. In an individualist culture you're
responsible to your own conscience; responsibility is largely an individual
matter. Examples of individualist cultures include those of the United States,
Australia, United Kingdom, Netherlands, Canada, New Zealand, Italy, Belgium,
Denmark, and Sweden.
In a collectivist culture you're
responsible to the rules of the social group; all members share responsibility
for accomplishments as well as for failures. Examples include the cultures of
Guatemala, Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Indonesia, Pakistan, China,
Costa Rica, and Peru. Individualistic cultures foster competition, whereas
collectivist cultures promote cooperation.
One obvious consequence of this difference in
orientation can be seen in how individualistic and collectivist groups treat
members who commit serious errors. A group governed by individualistic norms is
likely to single out, reprimand, and perhaps fire an errant member. Further,
the leader or supervisor is likely to distance himself or herself from this
group member for fear that the error will reflect negatively on his or her
leadership. In a more collectivist culture, the error is more likely to be seen
as a group mistake. The group is unlikely to single out the member-especially
not in public-and the leader is likely to bear part of the blame. The same is
true when one member comes up with a great idea. In individualist cultures that
person is likely to be singled out for praise and rewards, even though the
effort was to benefit the group. In collectivist cultures the group is
recognized and rewarded for the idea.
HIGH AND LOW POWER DISTANCES
In high-power-distance cultures, power is
concentrated in the hands of a few, and there is a great difference between the
power held by these people and the power held by the ordinary citizen; examples
include the cultures of Malaysia, Panama, Guatemala, Philippines, Venezuela,
Mexico, China, the Arab world, Indonesia, and Ecuador. In low-powerdistance
cultures, power is more evenly distributed throughout the citizenry; examples
include Austria, Israel, Denmark, New Zealand, Ireland, Norway, Sweden,
Finland, Switzerland, and Costa Rica. The power distance between groups will
influence the group of friends you develop, as well as whom you might date. For
example, in India (which is high-power distance) your group of friends is expected
to be chosen from those within your cultural class (as are your dating partners).
In Sweden (which is low-power distance), a person is expected to form friendships
(and romances) on the basis not of class or culture but of individual factors
such as personality, appearance, and the like.
In high-power-distance cultures, you're
taught to have great respect for authority; people in these cultures see authority
as desirable and beneficial and generally do not welcome challenges to
authority. In low-power-distance cultures, there's a certain distrust of authority;
it's seen as a kind of necessary evil that should be limited as much as possible.
This difference in attitudes toward authority can be seen in the classroom. In
highpower-distance cultures, there's a great power distance between students
and teachers; students are expected to be modest, polite, and totally
respectful. In low-power-distance cultures, students are expected to
demonstrate their knowledge and command of the subject matter, participate in
discussions with the teacher, and even challenge the teacher-something many
members of high-power-distance cultures wouldn't think of doing.
High-power-distance cultures rely on symbols
of power. For example, titles (e.g. Dr., Professor, Chef, Inspector) are more
important in high-power-distance cultures. Failure to include these honorifics
in forms of address is a serious breach of etiquette. Low-powerdistance
cultures rely less on symbols of power, so there is less of a problem if you
fail to use a respectful title (Victor, 1992). Regardless, you still may create
problems if, for example, you address a medical doctor, police captain,
military officer, or professor with "Ms." or "Mr." The
groups in which you'll participate as a member or a leader will vary in power
distance; some will be high-power-distance groups and others will be low. You
need to recognize which is which, to follow the cultural rules generally, and
to break the rules only after you've thought through the consequences. .
Members in Small Group Communication
Each of us serves many roles, patterns of
behaviors that we customarily perform and that we're expected by others to perform.
Javier, for example, is a part-time college student, father, bookkeeper,
bowling team captain, and sometime poet. That is, he acts as a student attends
class, reads textbooks, takes exams, and does the things we expect of college
students. He also performs those behaviors associated with fathers, bookkeepers,
and so on. In a similar way, you develop relevant ways of behaving when
participating in small groups.
MEMBER ROLES
Group member roles fall into three general classes-group
task roles, group building and maintenance roles, and individual roles-a
classification introduced in early research and still widely used today. These
roles arc frequently served by leaders as well.
Group Task Roles
Group task roles help the group focus on
achieving its goals. Effective group members serve several roles. Some people
lock into a few specific roles, but this single focus is usually
counterproductive-it's better for the roles to be spread more evenly among the
members and for the roles to be alternated frequently. Here are some examples
of group task roles.
• The information seeker or giver or the
opinion seeker or giver asks for or gives facts or opinions, seeks
clarification of issues being discussed, and presents facts or opinions to
group members: "Sales for May were up 10 percent. Do we have the sales
figures for June?"
• The initiator-contributor presents new
ideas or new perspectives on old ideas, suggests new goals, or proposes new
procedures or organizational strategies: “We need to also look at the amount of
time visitors spend on our new site"
• The elaborator gives examples and tries
to work out possible solutions, trying to build on what others have said:
"That three-part division worked at ABC and should work here as
well."
• The evaluator-critic evaluates the
group's decisions, questions the logic or practicality of the suggestions, and
provides the group with both positive and negative feedback: "That's a
great idea, but it sounds expensive."
• The procedural technician or recorder
takes care of various mechanical duties, such as distributing group materials
and arranging the seating; writing down the group's activities, suggestions,
and decisions; and/or serving as the group's memory: "'We have another
meeting scheduled to discuss just this issue, so perhaps we can skip it for
today"
Group Building and Maintenance Roles
No group can be task oriented at all times. Group
members have varied interpersonal relationships, and these need to be nourished
if the group is lo function effectively, Group members need to be satisfied if
they arc lo be productive. Group building and maintenance roles serve these
relationship needs. Here are some examples of these roles.
• The encourager or harmonizer provides
members with positive reinforcement through social approval or praise for their
ideas and mediates the various differences between group members: "Pat, another
great idea."
• The compromiser tries to resolve
conflict between his or her ideas and those of others and offers compromises:
"This looks like it could work if each department cut hack at least I 0
percent."
• The gatekeeper-expediter keeps the
channels of communication open by reinforcing the efforts of others:
"Those were really good ideas; we're on a roll."
• The standard setter proposes standards
for the functions of the group or for its solutions: "We need to be able to
increase the number of visits by several thousand a day."
• The follower goes along with members,
passively accepts the ideas of others, and functions more as an audience than
as an active member: "If you all agree, that's fine with me"
Individual Roles
Whereas group task and group building and maintenance
roles are productive and help the group achieve its goal, individual roles
involve behavior that is counterproductive. They hinder the group from
achieving its goal and are individual rather than group oriented. Such roles,
often termed dysfunctional, hinder the group's effectiveness in terms of both
productivity and personal satisfaction. Here are some examples of individual
roles:
• The aggressor expresses negative
evaluation of members and attacks the group: "That's a terrible idea. It
doesn't make any sense"
• The recognition seekers and self-confessors
try to focus attention on themselves, boast about their accomplishments rather
than the task at hand, and express their own feelings rather than focus on the
group: "The system I devised at B&B was a great success; everyone
loved it. We should just go with that,"
• The blocker provides negative feedback,
is disagreeable, and opposes other members or suggestions regardless of their
merit: "You're dreaming if you think that will work"
• The special interest pleader disregards
the goals of the group and pleads the case of some special group: "This
solution isn't adequate; it doesn't address the needs of XYZ”.
• The dominator tries to run the group or
members by pulling rank, flattering members, or acting the role of buss:
"I've been here the longest; I know what works and what doesn't work”.
A popular individual role born on the
Internet is trolling, the practice of posting messages that you know are false
or outrageous just so you can watch the group members correct you or get
emotionally upset by your message. As in any group, behavior such as trolling
or flaming wastes time and energy and diverts the group from its primary
objective.
MEMBER PARTICIPATION AND SKILLS
Here are several guidelines to help make your
participation in small group communication more effective and enjoyable.
Be Group Oriented
When participating in a small group, you
serve as a member of a team. You share common goals with the other group
members, and your participation is valuable to the extent that it advances this
shared goal. In a team situation, you need to pool your talents, knowledge, and
insights to promote the best possible solution for the group. Although a group
orientation calls for the participation and cooperation of all group members,
this guideline does not suggest that you abandon your individuality, personal
values, or beliefs for the group's sake. Individuality with a group orientation
is most effective. And because the most effective and the most creative
solutions often emerge from a combination of ideas, approach small group
situations with flexibility; come to the group with ideas and information but
without firmly formulated conclusions. The importance of a group orientation is
also seen in one of the rules of netiquette, which holds that you should not
protest the subject of, say, a mailing list or a chat group. If you don't wish
to be group oriented and discuss what the group is discussing, you're expected
to unsubscribe from the mailing list or withdraw from the group.
Center Conflict on Issues
Conflict in small group situations is inevitable;
it's a natural part of the give and take of ideas and often promotes a better
outcome. To manage conflict effectively, however, center it on issues rather
than on personalities. When you disagree, make it clear that your disagreement
is with the ideas expressed, not with the person who expressed them. For
example, if you think that a colleague's ideas to raise funds for your social
service agency are impractical and shortsighted, concentrate your criticisms on
your colleague's proposed plan and suggest ways that the plan could be improved
rather than attacking your colleague personally. Similarly, when someone
disagrees with you, try not to take it personally or react emotionally. Rather,
view the disagreement as an opportunity to discuss issues from an alternative
point of view. In the language of the Internet, don't flame-don't attack the
person. And don't contribute to flame wars by flame baiting, or saying things
that will further incite the personal attacks.
Be Critically Open-Minded
When members join a group with their minds
already made up, the small group process degenerates into a series of debates
in which each person argues for his or her position-a clear example of members'
taking on individual and dysfunctional roles. Group goals arc neglected and the
group process breaks down. Let's say you have spent several hours developing
what you think is the best, most effective advertising campaign to combat your
company's low sales numbers. At the group meeting, however, members' reactions are
extremely critical. Instead of becoming defensive, listen to their criticisms
and try to think of ways that your plan could be modified to be as effective as
possible for the company. To avoid this situation in the future, try to come to
the group with ideas rather than conclusions; with suggestions rather than
final decisions; and, of course, with information that will contribute to the
discussion and the group goal. Be willing to accept other people's suggestions
as well as to revise your own in light of the discussion. Listen openly but
critically to comments of all members (including your own).
Beware of Social Loafing
Visualize yourself in a rope pulling
contest-you need to successfully pull the other side into the pond or they will
pull you. With this vision in mind, consider whether you would exert more
effort if you were alone or if you were part of a group of five or six. The concept
of social loafing-the theory that you exert less effort when you're part of a
group than when alone-resulted from experiments such as this that measured the
amount of effort people actually exerted alone versus in. Being aware of this
tendency is a useful first step in combating it. It's often an unproductive
group tendency that leads to Jess productive group interactions and decisions.
And it is probably noticed brothers and so hurts you professionally. Some of
the factors that influence social loafing and corresponding correctives are
identified in Table 10.I (p, 198).
Ensure Understanding
Make sure all participants understand your
ideas and information. If something is worth saying, it's worth making clear.
When m doubt, ask questions: "ls that dear?" "Did l explain that
clearly?" Make sure, too, that you fully understand other members' contributions,
especially before you disagree with them. In fact, it's often wise to preface
any expression of disagreement with some kind of paraphrase to ensure you
really arc in disagreement. For example, you might say, "If I understand
you correctly, you feel that marketing should bear sole responsibility for
updating the product database." After waiting for the response, you would
state your thoughts.
Beware of Groupthink
In some groups, agreement among members becomes
so important that it takes the form of groupthink-a tendency that shuts out
realistic and logical analysis of a problem and of possible alternatives. Such
agreement is meant to signal the "deterioration of mental efficiency,
reality testing, and moral judgment that results from in-group pressures".
In groupthink, members are extremely selective about the information they consider.
They tend to ignore facts and opinions contrary to the group's position, and
they readily and uncritically accept those that support the group's position. When
you recognize that groupthinking is occurring, try the following:
• When too-simple solutions are offered to
problems, try to illustrate (with specific examples, if possible) for the group
members how the complexity of the problem is not going to yield to the
solutions offered.
• When you feel that members are not
expressing their doubts about the group's decisions, encourage them to voice
disagreement, to play devil’s advocate, to test the adequacy of the solution.
If you feel there is unexpressed disagreement, ask specifically if anyone
disagrees.
• To combat the group pressure toward
agreement, reward members who do voice disagreement or doubt. Say, for example,
"That's a good argument, we need to hear more about the potential problems
of this proposal. Does anyone else sec any problems?"
Leaders in Small Group Communication
Leadership is defined in two very different
ways in research and theory:
• Leadership is the process of influencing
the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of group members and establishing the
direction that others follow; leadership and influence are parts of the same
skill.
• Leadership is the process of empowering
others; the leader is the person who helps others to maximize their potential
and to take control of their lives.
These two definitions are not mutually
exclusive; in fact, most effective leaders do both: they influence and they
empower. As you read about leadership, keep these two definitions or functions
of power and empowerment in mind.
In many small groups one person serves as
leader; in other groups leadership may be shared by several persons. 1n some
cases a person may be appointed the leader or may serve as leader because of
her or his position within the company or hierarchy. In other cases the leader
may emerge as the group proceeds in fulfilling its functions or instead may be
elected by the group members. Two significant factors exert considerable
influence on who emerges as group leader. One is the extent of active
participation: The person who talks the most is more likely to emerge as leader.
The second factor is effective listening: Members who listen effectively will
emerge as leaders more often than those who do not.
MYTHS ABOUT LEADERSHIP
Many common beliefs about leadership arc
erroneous. The following arc three examples of myths about leadership
paraphrased from small group theorists:
• Myth: The skills of leadership are rare.
Actually, all of us have the potential for leadership. There are millions of
people throughout the world who are serving leadership functions in government,
business, education, and countless other fields.
• Myth: Leaders are born. Actually,
the major leadership skills can be learned by just about everyone. No specific
genetic endowment is necessary. We all can improve our leadership abilities.
• Myth: Leaders are all charismatic.
Actually, only some leaders are. According to one survey of leaders they were
of all heights, varied in articulateness, and dressed both well and poorly.
APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP
Not surprisingly, leadership has been the
focus of considerable research attention. Researchers have identified several
views of leadership, called approaches. Looking at a few of these approaches
will give you a better idea of the varied ways in which leadership may he
viewed and a better grasp of what leadership is and how it may be achieved.
The Traits Approach
This approach views the leader as the one who
possesses those characteristics or skills that contribute to leadership. The
traits approach is valuable for stressing the characteristics that often (but
not always) distinguish leaders from nonleaders. For example, some of the
world's leading corporations seek technology project managers and leaders by
looking for people who have technological skills, group building skills. And interpersonal
skills. Research has found that the traits most frequently associated with
leadership include intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and
sociability. A shortcoming of the traits approach is that these qualities often
vary according to the situations in which the leader functions, such as the
group type, the personalities and roles of the other members, and the group's
cultural context. Thus, for some groups (e.g., a new computer game company), a
youthful, energetic, humorous leader might be most effective; for other groups
(e.g., a medical diagnosis team), an older, more experienced and serious leader
might be most effective.
The Functional Approach
This approach to leadership focuses on what
the leader should do in a given situation. We've already encountered some of
these functions in the discussion of group roles. Other functions associated
with leadership are setting group goals, giving the group members direction,
and summarizing the group's progress. Additional functions are identified in
the section entitled "Leadership Skills" later in this chapter.
The Transformational Approach
This approach describes a
"transformational" (also called visionary or charismatic) leader who
elevates the group's members, enabling them not only to accomplish the group
task but also to emerge as more empowered individuals. At the center of the
transformational approach is the concept of charisma, that quality of an
individual that makes us believe or want to follow him or her. Gandhi, Martin
Luther King, Jr., and John F. Kennedy are often cited as examples of transformational
leaders. These leaders were role models, were seen as extremely competent and
able, and articulated moral goals. We'll return to this concept of charisma and
its qualities when we examine credibility in Chapter 14.
The Situational Approach
This approach holds that the effective leader
shifts his or her emphasis between task accomplishment (i.e., identifying and
focusing on the specific problem that the group must solve) and member
satisfaction (i.e., providing for the psychological and interpersonal needs of
the group members) on the basis of the specific group situation. This twofold
function, you'll notice, rests on essentially the same distinction between relationship
and task groups that we considered in Chapter 9. Some groups call for a high
focus on task issues and need little people encouragement; this might be the
case, for example, with a group of experienced scientists researching a cure
for AIDS. In contrast, a group of recovering alcoholics might require
leadership that stresses the members' emotional needs. The general idea of
situational leadership is that there is no one style of leadership that fits all
situations; each situation will call for a different ratio of emphasis on task
and on member satisfaction. Effective leadership, according to this approach,
depends on the leader's assessment of the group's ability to do the task and
their willingness and commitment to do it.
This theory identifies four leadership
styles:
• Telling style: The leader provides
high levels of task guidance and tells the group members what to do, when and
where to do it, and how to do it. This style is most appropriate for a group
that lacks knowledge of the issues involved and needs direct guidance on how to
complete the task.
• Selling style: The leader gives the group high levels of
both task guidance and relationship support. This leader not only tells people
what to do but also tells them why they should do it; the leader wants to get
the members' psychological support (i.e., to get them to "buy into"
the task at hand).
• Participating style: The leader
gives the group high levels of relationship support but little in the way of
task direction. This leadership style is appropriate for a group that knows
what to do (hence little task direction is needed) but that seems to have lost
the motivation or willingness to accomplish the task.
• Delegating style: The leader gives
little task direction and little emotional support. This leadership style is
most appropriate for a group that knows what to do and how to do it and also
has the confidence, commitment, and motivation to accomplish the task. The
leader merely needs to delegate tasks for the group's goals to he accomplished.
GENERAL STYLES OF LEADERSHIP
In
addition to the styles identified in the situational approach to leadership,
small group theorists also distinguish among laissez-faire, democratic, and
authoritarian leaders. As you'll see, these three styles represent a different
way of looking at leadership and leadership style.
The laissez-faire leader takes no
initiative in directing or suggesting alternative courses of action. Rather,
this leader allows the group to develop and progress on its own, even allowing
it to make its own mistakes. The laissez-faire leader answers questions and provides
information only when specifically asked. During the interaction, this leader
neither compliments nor criticizes group members or the group's progress.
The democratic leader provides direction
but allows the group to develop and progress the way its members wish; this
form of leadership is similar to the "participating style" in the
situational approach. The democratic leader encourages group members to
determine their own goals and procedures and aims to stimulate self-direction
and self-actualization of the group members.
The authoritarian leader is the opposite
of the laissez-faire leader. As in the "telling style" of leadership
in the situational approach, this leader determines group policies and makes
decisions without consulting or securing agreement from the other members of
the group. The authoritarian leader discourages member-tomember communication.
This person is concerned with getting the group to accept his or her decisions
rather than making its own.
LEADERSHIP SKILLS
Keeping the various views of leadership in mind,
especially the situational theory with its concern for both task and people, we
can look at some of the major functions leaders serve and their corresponding
skills, the skills of leadership. These functions/skills are not exclusively
the leaders, they are often shared or served wholly by group members. But when
there's a specific leader, she or he is expected to perform these functions and
exhibit the skills for accomplishing these goals.
Prepare Members and Start Interaction
Groups form gradually and often need to be
eased into meaningful discussion. As the leader, you need to prepare members
for the small group interaction as well as for the discussion of a specific
issue or problem. Don't expect diverse members to work together cohesively to
solve a problem without first becoming familiar with one another. Similarly, if
members are to discuss a specific problem, a proper briefing may be necessary.
If materials need to be distributed before the actual discussion, consider
e-mailing them to members. Or perhaps members need to view a particular film or
television show. Whatever the preparations, you need to organize and coordinate
them. Once the group is assembled, you may need to stimulate the members to
interact.
Build Group Cohesiveness
Groups vary greatly in cohesiveness-the
members' closeness to and liking for each other. In general, cohesiveness is a
positive quality, and cohesive groups seem lo he more effective. For example,
cohesive group members enjoy the interaction more and consequently come to
meetings on time and stay until the end. They are more likely to be satisfied
with the time spent in the group and to develop a "we-ness," seeing
the group as a unit. Because members arc comfortable with one another, they
will be more willing to offer suggestions and ideas that may at first seem
impossible, which may help the group eventually find a workable solution.
In a group that is excessively cohesive,
however, members may be less apt to disagree with one another, which may hinder
the group's critical analysis of any proposed idea. Still, a cohesive group is
more likely to be successful. Cohesiveness is built by leaders who stress the
positives, reward members frequently, and make the entire group experience as pleasant
and personally rewarding as possible. Simple compliments and expressions of
fondness will help build a cohesive group. Group accomplishments also build
cohesiveness.
Maintain Effective Interaction
Even after the group has begun to interact,
you'll need to monitor the members' effective interaction. When the discussion
begins to drag, you may need to step in and motivate the group: "Do we
have any additional comments on the proposal to eliminate required
courses?" "What do you, as members of the college curriculum committee,
think about the proposal?" You'll also want to ensure that all members
have an opportunity to express themselves.
Guide Members through the Agreed-on
Agenda
As the leader, you need to keep the
discussion on track by asking relevant questions, summarizing the group discussions
periodically, or offering a transition from one issue to the next. This involves
following the list of tasks to be accomplished by the group as outlined in the meeting
agenda and efficiently managing the amount of time allotted for each event.
Ensure Member Satisfaction
Members have different psychological needs and
wants, and many people enter groups because of them. Even though a group may,
for example, deal with political issues, members may have come together for psychological
as well as for political reasons. If a group is to be effective, it must achieve
the group goal (in this case, a political one) without denying the
psychological purposes or goals that motivate many of the members to come
together. One way to meet these needs is for you as leader Lo allow digressions
and personal comments, assuming they are not too frequent or overly long.
Another way is to be supportive and reinforcing.
Empower Group Members
An important function of a leader is to
empower other group members-to help them gain increased power over themselves
and their environment.
Empowerment will occur when you follow these
guidelines as a leader:
• Raise members' self-esteem; compliment,
reinforce; resist fault finding.
• Share skills and decision -making power and
authority.
• Be constructively critical. Be willing to
offer your perspective and to react honestly to suggestions from all group
members, not only those in high positions.
• Listen willingly and eagerly. Acknowledge
your understanding by appropriately nodding or using such minimal responses as I
see or I understand, ask questions if something isn't clear, maintain eye
contact, and lean forward as appropriate.
• Avoid interrupting to change the topic or
to shift the focus to something else. When you interrupt, you say, in effect,
that what the other group member is saying is less important than what you're
saying.
Encourage Ongoing Evaluation and
Improvement
All groups encounter obstacles as they try to
solve a problem, reach a decision, or generate ideas. No group is totally effective.
All groups have room for improvement. To improve, the group must focus on itself.
Along with trying to solve some external problem, it must try to solve its own
internal problems-for example, personal conflicts, failure of members to meet
on time, or members who come unprepared. When you notice some serious group
failing, address it, perhaps suggesting that a particular issue (say, member
tardiness) is a problem to be solved.
Manage Conflict
As in interpersonal relationships, conflict
is a part of small group interaction. And it's a leader's responsibility to
deal with it effectively. The conflict management techniques that are useful in
small groups are the same techniques discussed in the context of interpersonal
communication (see Chapter 8). You may wish to think of them as small group
conflict management strategies.
Mentor
Another function of leadership that is
especially applicable to the small group but is used extensively in the
workplace and in business and personal relationships generally is that of
mentoring-a process that occurs when an experienced individual helps to train
less experienced group members. An accomplished teacher, for example, might
mentor younger teachers who are newly arrived or who have never taught before.
A group leader might be the group members' supervisor and may mentor those
supervised. The mentor guides new people through the ropes, teaches strategies
and techniques for success, and otherwise communicates his or her accumulated
knowledge and experience to the "men tee" or protégé. At the same
time, the mentor benefits from clarifying his or her thoughts, from seeing the
job from the perspective of a newcomer, and from considering and formulating
answers to a variety of questions. Just as a member learns from the leader, the
leader learns from the members.
Chapter Review
1. Which
approach to leadership suggests the leadership style should change with the
circumstances?
A.
Trait
approach
B.
Democratic
approach
C.
Laissez-faire
approach
D. Situational
approach
2. Which
of the following behaviors increase the likelihood of someone emerging as a
leader of a group?
A.
Being
appointed by an outsider
B.
Aggressively
competing for the role
C.
Telling
people what they want to hear
D. Providing
a solution in a time of crisis
3. The
skills of leadership are rare.
A.
True
B. False
4. In
a collectivist culture you're responsible to the rules of the social group; all
members share responsibility for accomplishments as well as for failures.
A. True
B.
False
5. In
an individualist culture you're NOT responsible to your own conscience.
A.
True
B. False
6. The
_______ giver asks for or gives facts or opinions, seeks clarification of
issues being discussed, and presents facts or opinions to group members.
A.
elaborator
B. information
seeker
C.
initiator-contributor
D.
evaluator-critic
7. The
__________takes care of various mechanical duties, such as distributing group
materials and arranging the seating; writing down the group's activities,
suggestions, and decisions; and/or serving as the group's memory.
A. procedural
technician or recorder
B.
initiator-contributor
C.
evaluator-critic
D.
elaborator
8. The
_________ presents new ideas or new perspectives on old ideas, suggests new
goals, or proposes new procedures or organizational strategies.
A.
elaborator
B.
information
seeker
C. initiator-contributor
D.
evaluator-critic
9. The
______ gives examples and tries to work out possible solutions, trying to build
on what others have said.
A. procedural technician or recorder
B. initiator-contributor
C. evaluator-critic
D. elaborator
10. The
_______ evaluates the group's decisions, questions the logic or practicality of
the suggestions, and provides the group with both positive and negative
feedback.
A. procedural technician or recorder
B. initiator-contributor
C. evaluator-critic
D. elaborator
11. The
________ provides members with positive reinforcement through social approval
or praise for their ideas and mediates the various differences between group
members.
A.
compromiser
B.
gatekeeper-expediter
C. encourager
or harmonizer
D.
standard
setter
12. The
tries to resolve conflict between his or her ideas and those of others and
offers compromises.
A.
compromiser
B.
standard
setter
C.
follower
D.
blocker
13. The
_______ proposes standards for the functions of the group or for its solutions.
A.
compromiser
B. standard
setter
C.
follower
D.
blocker
14. The
_____ keeps the channels of communication open by reinforcing the efforts of
others.
A.
recognition
seekers and self-confessors
B.
dominator
C.
special
interest pleader
D. gatekeeper-expediter
15. The
______ goes along with members, passively accepts the ideas of others, and
functions more as an audience than as an active member.
A.
compromiser
B.
standard
setter
C. follower
D.
blocker
16. The
_________________try to focus attention on themselves, boast about their
accomplishments rather than the task at hand, and express their own feelings
rather than focus on the group.
A. recognition
seekers and self-confessors
B.
aggressor
C.
encourager
or harmonizer
D.
follower
17. The
______expresses negative evaluation of members and attacks the group.
A.
standard
setter
B.
dominator
C.
blocker
D. aggressor
18. The
______provides negative feedback, is disagreeable, and opposes other members or
suggestions regardless of their merit.
A. blocker
B.
special
interest pleader
C.
dominator
D.
encourager
or harmonizer
19. The
_______ tries to run the group or members by pulling rank, flattering members,
or acting the role of boss.
A.
recognition
seekers and self-confessors
B. dominator
C.
special
interest pleader
D.
gatekeeper-expediter
20. The
special interest pleader disregards the goals of the group and pleads the case
of some special group.
A.
gatekeeper-expediter
B.
encourager
or harmonizer
C.
recognition
seekers and self-confessors
D.
special interest pleader
Match the terms about
group membership and leadership with their definitions. Record the number of
the definition next to the appropriate term.
A. groupthink (198)
B. collective orientation (192)
C, individual rob (l 95)
D. laissez-faire leader (201)
E. transformational approach (200)
F group task roles (195)
G. mentoring (204)
H. group building and maintenance roles (195)
I. low-power-distance culture (193)
J. cohesiveness (203)
1. The process or relationship in which a
more experienced member helps train a less experienced member.
2. Member roles that help the group focus on
achieving its goals.
3. The tendency of a group to overvalue
agreement and ignore differences.
4. A cultural view that holds that the group
is more important than the individual.
5. Group roles of which encouraging,
compromising, and following are examples.
6. A leader who cakes no initiative in
directing or suggesting alternative courses of action.
7. The closeness and liking for each other of
group members.
8. A leadership style that elevates and
empowers group members.
9. Group roles of which expressing
aggressiveness, dominating, and seeking self-recognition are examples.
10. A culture in which there is a feeling of
equality and in which there is little difference in power among members.
Answers: A-3, B-4, C-9, D-6, E-8,
F-2, G-1, H-5, I-10, J-7
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