Chapter 9 - Review

Chapter 9 - Small Group Communication

Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

·       Define small group and team, the stages of small group communication, small group formats, small group apprehension, and small group culture.

·       Define brainstorming and its four rules, and use this technique for generating ideas.

·       Define the educational or learning group and the focus group, and participate effectively in these for information sharing.

·       Define the encounter group, the assertiveness training group, the consciousness raising group, and the intervention.

·       Describe the problem-solving sequence and decision-making methods; and define nominal, Delphi, and quality circle groups.

Consider the number of groups to which you belong. Your family is the most obvious example, but you might also be a member of a team, a class, a club, an organization, a sorority or fraternity, a collection of friends on Facehook or MySpace, a work group at your job, professional groups on Linkedln, or perhaps a band or theater group. Some of your most important and satisfying communications probably take place in small groups and teams like these. Mastering the skills of small group communication and leadership will enable you to function more productively and creatively in groups, enjoy group interaction more, and lead groups more comfortably and effectively. Your ability to function in a group-as a member and as a leader-is an essential job skill in today's workplace. In this introduction to small group communication, the chapter will first cover the essential concepts and principles of the small group, look at culture and the group, and then focus on the various types of groups.

Essentials of Small Groups and Teams

Let's begin with some basic definitions.

THE SMALL GROUP

A small group is (1) a collection of individuals who (2) are connected to one another by some common purpose, (3) are interdependent, (4) have some degree of organization among them, and (5) see themselves as a group.

Collection of Individuals

Generally, a small group consists of approximately 3 to 12 people. The collection of individuals must be few enough in number that all members may communicate with relative ease as both senders and receivers. In face-to-face situations, there are also limits that the available space imposes; in online groups, no such spatial barriers exists. If the group gets much larger than 12, however, even on line group communication becomes difficult. On Facebook and similar social networking sites, the number of individuals in a group may number in the hundreds of friends. These would not be a small groups-communicating via these sites is more akin to public speaking-but the subgroups that form would likely fall into the small group category.

Common Purpose

The members of a group must be connected to one another through some common purpose. People on a bus normally do not constitute a group, because they're not working toward a common goal. However, if the bus were to get stuck in a ditch, the riders may quickly become a group and work together to get the bus back on the road. This does not mean that all members of a group must have exactly the same purpose, but generally there must he some similarity in the individuals' reasons for interacting. Social media sites provide easy ways of connecting with others who have similar purposes.

Social media groups-whether professional as on LinkedIn or more purely social (although there are now apps to establish more professional groups) such as Facebook or a mixture as on Google+ enable you to form groups on just about any topic you'd like. If you're interested in something, there are probably others out there who are interested in the same thing and who would like to get together in virtual space. By joining a social media site group you can, depending on which one you join, receive e-mails from group members about group activities, network for a variety of reasons, discuss topics of mutual interest, plan events or hangouts, or solve problems-the very same purposes that face-to-face groups serve.

Interdependence

In a small group, members are interdependent, meaning that the behavior of one member is significant to and has an impact on all other members. When one member attacks or supports the ideas of another member, that behavior influences the other members and the group as a whole. When one member proposes a great idea or posts a clever quotation or photo, that behavior has an effect on all group members.

Organizing Rules

Members of small groups must be connected by some organizing rules, or structure. At times the structure is rigid, as in groups operating under parliamentary procedure, in which each comment must follow prescribed rules. At other times, as in a social gathering, especially online groups, the structure is very loose; however, there's some organization and some structure-for example, comments or questions by one member are responded to by others rather than ignored, and so on.

Self-Perception as a Group

Members of small groups feel they are, in fact, members of a larger whole. This doesn't mean that individuality is ignored or that members do not see themselves as individuals; it simply means that each member thinks, feels, and acts as a part of the group. The more members see themselves as part of the group, the greater the group cohesion (or sense of "groupness"); the more they see themselves as individuals, separate from the group, the less the group cohesion. Members in highly cohesive groups are usually more satisfied and more productive than members of low-cohesiveness groups.

THE TEAM

A team is a particular kind of small group. As such it possesses all of the characteristics of the small group, as well as some additional qualities. Drawing on a number of small group researchers in communication and organizational theory, the team can be defined as a small group (1) constructed for a specific task, (2) whose members have clearly defined roles and (3) are committed to achieving the same goal, and (4) which is content focused.

Specific Purpose

A team is often constructed for a specific purpose or task. After it is completed the members of the task group may be assigned to other teams or go their separate ways. Players on a baseball team, for example, come together for practice and for the actual game; but after the game, they each go their separate ways, After the book is published, members of the book team may go on to work on different books with different team members.

Clearly Defined Roles

In a team, member's roles are rather dearly defined. A sports team is a good example. Each player has a unique function: the shortstop's functions are very different from the pitchers or the catcher's, for example. In a business selling, the team that is responsible for publishing a book, say, would also consist of people with dearly defined roles, including the editor, the designer, the marketing manager, the sales manager, the photo researcher, the author, and so on. Each brings a unique perspective to the task and each is an authority in a specific area.

Goal Directed

In a team all members are committed to achieving the same, clearly identified goal. Again, a sports team is a good example: All members are committed to winning the game. In the publishing business example, all members of the team arc committed to producing a successful book.

Content Focused

Teams are generally content focused. In terms of the distinction between content and relationship messages introduced in Chapter 1 (p. 12), teams communicate largely through the exchange of content messages-on winning the game or creating the book-and much less through messages about the interpersonal relationships of its members.

VIRTUAL GROUPS AND TEAMS

Small groups and teams use a wide variety of channels. Often, interactions take place face-to-face; this is the channel that probably comes to mind when you think of groups. But, a great deal of small group and team interaction takes place on line, among geographically separated members who communicate as a group via computer or phone connections-with Skype, LinkedIn, or Facebook, for example. These virtual groups and teams serve both relationship and social purposes on the one hand (these are best thought of as small groups) and business and professional purposes on the other (these arc best thought of as teams). Perhaps the best example of virtual groups serving relationship purposes are social networking sites, where friends interact in groups but may be separated by classrooms or by oceans. And, increasingly, these social networking sites are being used to perform business tasks as well-for finding jobs, conducting business, solving organizational problems, and conducting just about any kind of function that a face-to-face group would serve. Business and professional purposes often are served by virtual teams. Some of these team members may be working at home; but increasingly, virtual teams consist of people who are in different work spaces, perhaps in different parts of an office building, perhaps in different countries. The same principles of effective group communication apply to all kinds of groups and teams, whether social or business, face-to-face or virtual (we'll use the most inclusive term "small group" to refer to all types of groups). Whether you're working on a team project with colleagues in different countries, communicating with new friends on Facebook, or interacting face-to-face with your extended family, the principles discussed here will prove useful.

SMALL GROUP STAGES

With knowledge of the various kinds of small groups, we can now look at how groups interact in the real world. Small group interaction develops in much the same way as a conversation. As in conversation (see Chapter 6), there are five stages: opening, feedforward, business, feedback, and closing.

Opening - The opening period is usually a getting-acquainted time during which members introduce themselves and engage in small talk (e.g., "How was your weekend?" "Does anyone want coffee?"). Your objective here is to get comfortable with the group members.

Feedforward - After this preliminary get-together, there is usually some feedforward-some attempt to identify what needs to be done, who will do it, and so on. In a more formal group, the agenda (which is a perfect example of feedforward) may be reviewed and the tasks of the group identified. This is much like making a "to do" list.

Business - The business portion is the actual discussion of the tasks-the problem solving, the sharing of information, or whatever else the group needs to achieve.

Feedback - At the feedback stage, the group may reflect on what it has done and perhaps on what remains to be done. Some groups may even evaluate their performance at this stage: for example, “We need to focus more on the financial aspects” or “We need to consider additional alternatives”.

Closing - At the closing stage, the group members return to their focus on individuals and will perhaps exchange closing comments ("Good seeing you again;' "See you next time").

Note that the group focus shifts from members to task and then back again to members. Different groups will naturally follow different patterns, for example, a work group that has gathered to solve a problem is likely to spend a great deal more time focused on the task than on each other; whereas an informal social group, say two or three couples who get together for dinner, will spend most of their time focused on the concerns of individuals. Similarly, the amount of time spent on the opening or closing, for example, will vary with the type and purpose of the group.

SMALL GROUP FORMATS

Small groups serve their functions in a variety of formats. Among the most popular small group formats for relatively formal functions are the round table, the panel, the symposium, and the symposium-forum.

• In the roundtable, group members arrange themselves physically (usually in chairs} in a circular or semicircular pattern. They share information or solve a problem without any set pattern of who speaks when. Group interaction is informal, and members contribute as they see fit. A leader or moderator may be present; he or she may, for example, try to keep the discussion on the topic or encourage more reticent members to speak up.

• In the panel, group members are "experts" but participate informally and without any set pattern of who speaks when, as in a roundtable. The difference is that they are sitting, often side-by-side, in front of an audience, whose members may interject comments or ask questions.

• In the symposium, each member delivers a prepared presentation much like a public speech. All speeches address different aspects of a single topic. A symposium leader introduces the speakers, provides transitions from one speaker to another, and may provide periodic summaries.

• The symposium-forum consists of two parts: a symposium with prepared speeches (as explained above) and a forum, a period of questions from the audience and responses by the speakers. The leader introduces the speakers and moderates the question-and-answer session.

These four formats are general patterns that describe a wide variety of groups. Within each type, there will naturally be variation. For example, in the symposium-forum, there is no set pattern for how much time will he spent on the symposium part and how much on the forum part. Combinations may also be used. Thus, for example, group members may each present a position paper (basically a symposium) and then participate in a roundtable discussion.

SMALL GROUP APPREHENSION

Just as you may have apprehension about public speaking (a topic to be discussed in Chapter 11), you probably experience apprehension to some degree in group discussions. Because small groups vary so widely, you're likely to experience different degrees of apprehension depending on the nature of the specific group. Work groups, for example, may cause greater apprehension than groups of friends. And interacting with superiors is likely to generate greater anxiety than meeting with peers or subordinates. Similarly, the degree of familiarity you have with the group members and the extent to which you see yourself as a part of the group (as opposed to an outsider) also will influence your level of apprehension. lf you are apprehensive in group situations (the self-test included here will help you determine this), you may want to review the suggestions for reducing your apprehension in public speaking; they are the same skills that will help you reduce apprehension in groups and meetings (see pp. 209-210).

SMALL GROUP CULTURE

Many groups-especially those of long standing-develop cultural norms and are greatly influenced by their own high-context or low-context orientation. Each of these cultural dimensions influences the group, its members, and its communication.

Group Norms

Rules or standards, known as group norms, identify which behaviors are considered appropriate (such as being willing to take on added tasks or directing conflict toward issues rather than toward people) and which are considered inappropriate (such as arriving late or failing to contribute actively). These rules for appropriate behavior are sometimes explicitly stated in a company contract or policy: All members must attend department meetings. Sometimes they are unstated: Group members should be well groomed.

Online groups vary a great deal in terms of norms and, as with all groups, it's wise to familiarize yourself with the norms of the group before actively participating. For example, social media groups will vary greatly in their tolerance for self-promotion and commercializing. LinkedIn groups and other sites frown upon self-promotion and may ostracize you for doing so. And even if you don't get thrown off Facebook, you're likely to incur considerable negative reaction. On the other hand, other groups-for example, the listserv for communication professionals, called Crtnet ­ frequently includes posts in which individual members will advertise their own books. Sometimes, a group will tolerate self-promotion officially while individual members may look on the posts very negatively. Norms may apply to individual members as well as to the group as a whole and, of course, will differ from one cultural group to another (Axtell, 1990, 1993). For example, although business associates from the United States might prefer to get right down to business, those from Japan might prefer rather elaborate socializing before addressing the business at hand. In the United States, men and women in business are expected to interact when making business decisions as well as when socializing. In Muslim and Buddhist societies, however, religious restrictions prevent mixing between the sexes. In some cultures (e.g., those of the United States, Bangladesh, Australia, Germany, Finland, and Hong Kong), punctuality for business meetings is very important. But in others (e.g., those of Morocco, Italy, Brazil, Zambia, Ireland, and Panama), punctuality is less important; being late is no great insult and in some situations is even expected. In the United States and in much of Asia and Europe, meetings are held between two parties. In many Persian Gulf states, however, a business executive is likely to conduct meetings with several different groups-sometimes dealing with totally different issues-at the same time. In the United States very little interpersonal touching goes on during business meetings, but in Arab countries touching such as hand holding is common and is a gesture of friendship.

High-Context and Low-Context Cultures

 A cultural distinction that has special relevance to small group communication is that between high-context and low-context cultures (Hall, 1976; Singh & Pereira, 2005). In a high-context culture (for example, Japan, China, Korea. Malaysia, and Indonesia) much of the information conveyed is communicated by the context, or in the person, rather than explicitly coded in verbal messages. In such cultures, individuals have a great deal of information in common, and this shared knowledge does not have to be made explicit. In a low-context culture (for example, Denmark, Germany, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand), most information is communicated through explicitly stated verbal messages. In such cultures, people do not assume that they share certain information and so must make all crucial details explicit. Members of high-context cultures spend a lot of time getting to know each other before engaging in any small group interaction. Because of this prior personal knowledge, a great deal of information is already shared and therefore does not have to be explicitly stated. Members of low-context cultures, on the other hand, spend less time getting to know each other and therefore do not have that shared knowledge. As a result everything has to be stated explicitly. When this simple difference is not taken into account, misunderstandings can result, for example, the directness and explicitness characteristic of the low-context culture may prove insulting, insensitive, or unnecessary to members of a high-context culture. Conversely, to someone from a low-context culture, members from a high­context culture may appear vague, underhanded, and even dishonest in their reluctance to be explicit or to engage in what a low-context culture would consider to be open and direct communication.

Brainstorming Groups

Many small groups exist solely to generate ideas through brainstorming-a technique for analyzing a problem by presenting as many ideas as possible (Osborn, 1951; Beebe & Masterson, 2012). Although brainstorming also can be useful when you're trying to come up with ideas by yourself-ideas for speeches or term papers, ideas for a fun vacation, or ways to make money it is more typical in small group settings. Organizations have come to embrace brainstorming, because it lessens group members' inhibitions and encourages all participants to exercise their creativity. It also fosters cooperative teamwork; members soon learn that their own ideas and creativity are sparked by the contributions of others. The technique builds member pride and ownership in the final solution (or product or service), because all members contribute to it. Brainstorming occurs in two phases: (1) the brainstorming period itself and (2) the evaluation period. The procedures arc simple. First, a problem is selected. The "problem" may be almost anything that is amenable to many possible solutions or ideas-for example, how to recruit new members to the organization or how to market a new product. Before the actual session, group member’s arc informed of the problem so they can think about the topic. When the group meets, each person contributes as many ideas as he or she can think of. Companies often use chalkboards, whiteboards, or easels to record all the ideas. A brainstorming group may appoint one person to be the scribe; that person keys the group's notes into a laptop for instant circulation via e-mail to other group members after the group has concluded its business.

During the initial idea generating session, members follow four rules:

• Rule 1: No evaluations are permitted at this stage. All ideas are recorded for the group to see (or hear later). Prohibiting both verbal and nonverbal evaluation encourages group members to participate freely. This first rule is perhaps the most difficult for members to follow, so you might want to practice responding to what are called "idea killers." For example, what might you say if someone were to criticize an idea with the following comments?

We tried it before and it didn't work.

No one would vote for it.

It's too complex.

It's loo simple.

It would take too long.

It would cost too much.

We don't have the facilities.

What we have is good enough.

It just doesn't fit us.

It's not possible.

• Rule 2: Quantity of ideas is the goal. The more ideas generated, the more likely it is that a useful solution will be found.

• Rule 3: Combinations and extensions of Ideas are encouraged. Although members may not criticize a particular idea, they may extend or combine it. The value of a particular idea may be that it stimulates another idea.

• Rule 4: Freewheeling {i.e., developing as wild an idea as possible) is desirable. A wild idea can be tempered easily, but it's not so easy to elaborate on a simple or conservative idea. After all the ideas are generated- a period that lasts about 15 or 20 minutes-the group evaluates the entire list. Unworkable ideas are crossed off the list; those showing promise are retained and evaluated. During this phase, criticism is allowed.

Information-Sharing Groups

The purpose of information-sharing groups is to acquire new information or skills by sharing knowledge. In most of these groups, all members have something to teach and something to learn; a good example is a group of students sharing information to prepare for an exam. In others, the group interaction takes place because some members have information and some do not. An example is a discussion between a patient and a health care professional.

EDUCATIONAL OR LEARNING GROUPS

Members of educational or learning groups may follow a variety of discussion patterns. For example, a historical topic, such as the development of free speech or equal rights, might be explored chronologically, with the discussion progressing from the past into the present and, perhaps, into predictions of the future. Issues in developmental psychology, such as a child's language development or physical maturity, might also he discussed chronologically. Other topics lend themselves to spatial development, for example, the development of the United States might take a spatial pattern-from east to west-or a chronological pattern-from 1776 to the present. Other suitable patterns, depending on the topic and the group's needs, might be cause and effect, problem and solution, or structure and function. Perhaps the most popular discussion pattern is the topical pattern. A group might discuss the legal profession by itemizing and discussing each of the profession's major functions. Another might consider a corporation's structure in terms of its major divisions. Groups could further systematize each of these topics by, say, listing the legal profession's functions in order of importance or complexity, or ordering the corporation's major structures in terms of decision-making power.

FOCUS GROUPS

A different type of information sharing group is the focus group, a small group that is assembled and subjected to a kind of in-depth interview, often for market research. The aim of conducting a focus group is to discover through a sample of individuals what it is that people in general think about an issue or product; for example, what do men between 18 and 25 think of a particular brand of aftershave lotion and its packaging? In the focus group, a leader/interviewer tries to discover the members' beliefs, attitudes, thoughts, and feelings to use as a guide for decisions on, for example, changing the scent or redesigning the packaging. It is the leader's task to prod members of the focus group to analyze their thoughts and feelings on a deeper level and to use the thoughts of one member to stimulate the thoughts of others. Generally, a focus group leader, who is usually a professional facilitator rather than a member of the hosting organization itself, assembles approximately 12 people who represent the general population. The leader explains the process, the time limits, and the general goal of the group-let's say, to discover why these 12 individuals requested information on the XYZ health plan but purchased a plan from another company. The leader then asks a variety of questions. In our example the questions might be, "How did you hear about the XYZ health plan? What other health plans did you consider before making your actual purchase? What influenced you to buy the plan you eventually bought? Were any other people influential in helping you make your decision?" Through the exploration of these and similar questions, the facilitator and the relevant organizational members (who may be sealed behind a one-way minor, watching the discussion) may put together a more effective health plan or more effective advertising strategies.

Personal Growth Groups

Some personal growth groups) sometimes referred to as support groups, aim to help members cope with particular difficulties-such as drug addiction, not being assertive enough, being an ex-convict, or dealing with an alcoholic parent, a hyperactive child, or a promiscuous spouse. Other groups are more clearly therapeutic and are designed to change significant aspects of an individual's personality or behavior. Still other groups are devoted to making healthy individuals function even more effectively. Because personal growth groups vary widely in their procedures, it's not possible to provide a standard pattern that all such groups follow (as is the case with brainstorming groups, discussed above, or with problem-solving groups, discussed later in this chapter). But let's look briefly at four well-known types of personal growth groups: (1) the encounter group, (2) the assertiveness training group, (3) the consciousness-raising group, and (4) the intervention group.

A word of caution should be injected here: Personal growth groups are highly personal and ego-involving; and although they will all seem easy and reasonable to set up and participate in, they are actually very complex and difficult. They are discussed here (briefly) to give you an idea of the ty-pes of personal growth groups available rather than to provide a set of guidelines for using these groups.

THE ENCOUNTER GROUP

The encounter, group, also known as the "sensitivity group" or ''T [Training] group” constitutes a form of psychotherapy; these groups try to facilitate members' personal growth and foster their ability to deal effectively with other people (Hirsch, Kett, & Trefil, 2002; Rogers, 1970). One of the encounter group's assumptions is that the members will be more effective, both psychologically and interpersonally, if they get to know and like themselves better. Consequently, members are encouraged to look at themselves and their relationships honestly and in depth and to react to others in the group openly and honestly. Members are encouraged to express their inner thoughts, fears, and doubts ill the encounter group, in which interactions are always characterized by total acceptance and support.

THE ASSERTIVENESS TRAINING GROUP

The assertiveness training group aims to increase the willingness of its members to stand up for their rights and to act more assertively in a wide variety of situations (Adler, 1977; Bishop, 2006). Distinctions are made between being assertive (which is good and effective); being non­assertive (which is ineffective, because your own ' ...rants and needs are unlikely to be met); and being aggressive (which also is ineffective, because it contributes to escalating the conflict and causing resentment). The group aim); to increase the assertiveness skill); of its members, who are likely to be individuals who feel they are not assertive enough. The skill of assertiveness is covered in more detail in the discussion of verbal messages in Chapter 4.

THE CONSCIOUSNESS-RAISING GROUP

The consciousness-raising group aims to help people cope with the problems society confronts them with. The members of this type of group all have one characteristic in common (for example, they may all be women, unwed mothers, gay fathers, or recently unemployed executives). It's this commonality that leads the members to join together and help one another. In the consciousness-raising group the assumption is that similar people are best equipped to assist one another's personal growth. The procedures generally followed are simple: A topic is selected, and each member speaks on the topic as it relates to the general group topic. For example, if the group consists of unwed mothers, then whatever the topic (taxes, children, school, prejudice), the members address it in the context of the group's focus on unwed motherhood. No interruptions are allowed. After each member has finished, the other group members may ask questions of clarification. The feedback from other members is to be totally supportive. After the last member has spoken, a general discussion follows. This procedure is designed to help raise members' consciousness by giving them an opportunity to formulate and verbalize their thoughts on a particular topic, hear how others feel and think about the same topic, and formulate and answer questions of clarification.

THE INTERVENTION GROUP

In the intervention group participants gather to help one of their members overcome some problem. For example, family members may join together to confront an alcoholic parent or sibling. Other commonly confronted issues are drug, gambling, and sex addiction and eating disorders. Usually a leader is designated (sometimes a professional intervention leader and sometimes a group member). Under the leader's guidance the group members express their support and love for the person with the problem behavior explain the impact of this member's behavior on all connected others, and offer to help the person. As you can imagine, the skills of empathy, supportiveness, and immediacy are especially important in the intervention.

Problem-Solving Groups

A problem-solving group meets to solve a particular problem or to reach a decision on some issue. In a sense, this is the most demanding kind of group. It requires not only knowledge of small group communication techniques but also a thorough knowledge of the particular problem on the part of all group members. Also, for the most successful outcome, it usually demands faithful adherence to a set of procedural rules.

THE PROBLEM-SOLVING SEQUENCE

The problem-solving sequence identifies six steps and owes its formulation to philosopher John Dewey's insights into how people think (see Figure 9.3). These steps are designed to make problem solving more efficient and effective.

                              

Step 1: Define and Analyze the Problem

In some instances, the nature of the problem is clearly specified. For example, a work team might discuss how to package new tablets or smart phones Valentine's Day. In other instances, however, the problem may be vague, and it may be up to the group to define it-for example, the general topic of poor campus communications. In this case, the topic has to be more clearly defined and limited-for example, how the college website can be improved. Define the problem as an open-ended question (''How can we improve the college website?" rather than as a statement ("The website needs to be improved") or as a yes/no question ("Does the website need improvement?").

Step 2: Establish Criteria for Evaluating Solutions

Decide how you'll evaluate the solutions before proposing them. Identify the standards or criteria you'll use in evaluating solutions or in preferring one solution over another. For example, you might decide that a solution must lead to a 10 percent increase in website visits, that the solutions must not increase the budget, that the website information must not violate anyone's right to privacy, or that the website must provide a forum for all members of the college community. Set up criteria that are realistic and that can, in fact, be attained; otherwise, no solution is goi.ng to prove acceptable.

Step 3: Identify Possible Solutions

Identify as many solutions as possible. Focus on quantity rather than quality. Brainstorming may be particularly useful at this point. Solutions to the website improvement problem might include incorporating reviews of faculty publications, student evaluations of specific courses, reviews of restaurants in the campus area, outlines for new courses, and employment information.

Step 4: Evaluate Solutions

After all solutions have been proposed, evaluate each one. For example, does incorporating reviews of area restaurants meet the criteria? Would it increase the budget, for example? Would posting grades violate students' rights to privacy? Each potential solution should be matched against the evaluating criteria.

Step 5: Select the Best Solution(s)

Select the best solution and put it into operation. Let's assume that reviews of faculty publications and outlines for new courses best meet the evaluating criteria for solutions. The group might then incorporate these two new items into the website. Groups use different decision-making methods when deciding, for example, which solution to accept. The method to be used should, naturally, be stated at the outset of the group discussion.

Three main decision-making methods can be followed:

• Authority: In decision making by authority, group members voice their feelings and opinions, but the leader or boss makes the final decision. This method has the advantages of being efficient and of giving greater importance to the suggestions of more experienced members. The disadvantage is that members may feel that their contributions have too little influence and therefore may not participate with real enthusiasm.

• Majority rule: The group agrees to abide by the majority decision and may vote on various issues as the group searches to solve its problem. Like decision by authority, this method is efficient. A disadvantage is that it may lead the group to limit discussion by calling for a vote once a majority has agreed. Also, members not voting with the majority may feel disenfranchised and left out.

• Consensus: In small group decision making, consensus means reaching agreement. The agreement does not have to be unanimous; it is, rather, something that the group members can live with; they agree that they can do whatever the group's solution requires (Kelly. 1994). It does not imply that each individual group member agrees with the solution, but only, that members agree that at this time (for this situation, for this group) this solution should be adopted and followed. Consensus is the most time-consuming of the decision-making methods. However, it is also the method that best secures the cooperation and participation of all members in implementing the group's decisions. If you want members of the group to be satisfied with and committed to the decision consensus seems to be the best way to arrive at a solution (Beebe & Masterson, 2012)

Step 6: Test Selected Solutions

After putting solutions into operation, test their effectiveness. The group might, for example, poll the students or college employees about the new website. Or the group might analyze the number of visits to the website to see if the number of visits increases by the desired 10 percent. If the selected solutions prove ineffective, the group will need to return to a previous stage and repeat that part of the process. This often involves selecting other solutions to test. But it also may mean going even farther back in the process-to a reanalysis of the problem, an identification of other solutions, or a restatement of criteria, for example.

PROBLEM-SOLVING GROUPS AT WORK

The problem-solving sequence discussed here is used widely in a variety of different types of business groups. Let's examine three popular approaches that rely largely on the problem-solving techniques just discussed: (1) the nominal group technique. (2) The Delphi method, and (3) quality circles. As you read these discussions, realize that the available technology will dictate some of the ways in which these groups operate. If the members only have a whiteboard, then much will be recorded on the board. If all members have computers connected to the company website, then much of the record keeping will go onto the website and at the same time into each laptop or tablet.

The Nominal Group Technique

The nominal group technique is a method of problem solving that uses limited discussion and confidential voting to obtain a group decision. It's especially helpful when some members may be reluctant to voice their opinions in a regular problem solving group or when the issue is controversial or sensitive. The nominal group technique can be divided into eight steps [Kelly 1994):

1. The problem is defined and clarified for all members.

2. Each member writes down (without discussion or consultation with others) his or her ideas on or possible solutions to the problem.

3. Each member-in sequence-states one idea from his or her list, which is recorded on a hoard or flip chart so everyone can see it. This process is repeated until all suggestions are stated and recorded.

4. Each suggestion is clarified (without debate). Ideally, each suggestion is given equal time.

5. Each member rank-orders the suggestions in writing.

6. The rankings of the members are combined to get a group ranking, which is then written on the board.

7. Clarification, discussion, and possible reordering may follow.

8. The highest-ranking or several high-ranking solutions may then be put into operation and tested.

The Delphi Method

In the Delphi method a group of "experts" is established, but there's no interaction among them; instead, they communicate by repeatedly responding to questionnaires (Kelly, 1994; Tersine & Riggs, 1980). The Delphi method is especially useful when you want to involve people who are geographically distant from one another, when you want all members to become part of the solution and to uphold it, or when you want to minimize the effects of dominant members or even of peer pressure. The method is best explained as a series of eight steps (Kelly, 1994):

1. The problem is defined (for example, "We need to improve intradepartmental communication"). What each member is expected to do is specified (for example, each member should contribute five ideas on this specific question).

2. Each member then anonymously contributes five ideas in writing.

3. The ideas of all members are combined, written up, and distributed to all members.

4. Members then select the three or four best ideas from this composite list and submit these.

5. From these responses another list is produced and distributed to all members.

6. Members then select the one or two best ideas from the new list and submit these.

7. From these responses another list is produced and distributed to all members. The process may he repeated any number of times, but usually three rounds are sufficient for achieving a fair degree of agreement.

8. The "final" solutions are identified and are communicated to all members.

Quality Circles

A quality circle is a group of employees (usually about 6 to 12) whose task it is to investigate and make recommendations for improving the quality of some organizational function. The members are drawn from the workers whose area is being studied; for example, if the problem were how to improve advertising on the Internet, then the quality circle membership would be drawn from the advertising and technology departments. The basic assumption is that people who work on similar tasks will be best able to improve their departments or jobs by pooling their insights and working through problems they share. Quality circle members investigate problems using any method they feel might be helpful; for example, they may form face-to-face problem-solving groups or use nominal groups or Delphi methods. The group then reports its findings and suggestions to those who can implement the proposals.

Keyword Quiz

The Language of Small Group Communication

Match the terms about small group communication with their definitions. Record the number of the definition next to the appropriate term.

A. interdependence (175)

B. group norms (178)

C. quality circles (188)

D. brainstorming (180)

E. team (175)

F. high-context culture (179)

G. symposium (177)

H. consensus (186

I. nominal group (186)

J. focus group (182)

1. A group of employees charged with identifying ways to improve the organization.

2. A series of prepared presentations introduced and coordinated by a leader.

3. A kind of in-depth interview of a small group.

4. Rules or standards identifying which behaviors are considered appropriate and which are considered inappropriate in a group.

5. A type of agreement in which group members all agree that a solution is acceptable.

6. That relationship in which one person's behavior significantly impacts on the other person.

7. A culture in which much of the information in communication is not explicitly coded in verbal messages but is considered common knowledge to all participants.

8. A problem-solving technique in which there is little discussion and confidential voting.

9. A small group constructed for a specific purpose.

10. A small group process for generating ideas.

Answers: A-6, B-4, C-1, D-10, E-9, F-7, G-2, H-5, I-8, J-3

Chapter Review

1.     Which of the following numbers of participants would be considered a small group?

A.    All of these would be considered a small group.

B.    8

C.    15

D.    4

2.     The stage in a small group interaction in which someone might say, "Does anyone want coffee," is generally the _____ stage.

A.    opening

B.    business

C.    feedforward

D.    social

3.     This small group format consists of a series of prepared presentations like public speeches.

A.    Symposium-forum

B.    Round table

C.    Panel

D.    Symposium

4.     The rules or standards identifying which group behaviors are appropriate and which are not are called:           

A.    morals.

B.    values.

C.    norms.

D.    regulators.

5.     An in-depth interview of a small group whose aim is to discover what people think about an issue or product is a:           

A.    information sharing group.

B.    problem-solving group.

C.    focus group.

D.    educational or learning group.

6.     Using this decision-making method, group members voice their feelings and opinions, but the leader makes the final decision.

A.    Decision by authority

B.    Consensus

C.    Majority rule

D.    Identity management

7.     In order to qualify as a group, the people must be related in which of the following ways?

A.    Members have a common purpose.

B.    Each member has some role or task.

C.    Members are motivated.

D.    Members must make an impression on one another.

E.     All of the above.

8.     A school district forms a group including a teacher, a student, a principal, and a parent to review the high-school English curriculum. This is an example of a:

A.    project team.

B.    decision-making group.

C.    work team.

D.    focus group.

E.     social group.

9.     Social loafing:          

A.    occurs in disjunctive tasks.

B.    is one of the major reasons groups are highly productive.

C.    occurs when the members of a group fail to fulfill their work potential.

D.    increases group productivity.

10.  The decision-making process that leads to highest member satisfaction, but that takes longer than other methods and can waste a considerable amount of time, is:

A.    majority rule.

B.    authority.

C.    compromise.

D.    consensus.

11.  Which kind of power comes from the fact that people like you?

A.    Referent

B.    Expert

C.    Reward

D.    Legitimate

12.  In a group beset by groupthink:

A.    members are extremely cohesive.

B.    members are so critical that the climate becomes defensive.

C.    members take full advantage of group synergy.

D.    members feel a great deal of secondary tension.

13.  Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a group?

A.    Group members need to have a common purpose.

B.    Group members feel an obligation to the others in the group.

C.    Group members exert influence on other group members.

D.    Groups are not influenced by nonverbal messages.

14.  A ____ group exists to associate with others.

A.    focus

B.    study

C.    primary

D.    therapy

15.  _____ is the ability to influence others' behavior.

A.    Control

B.    Cohesiveness

C.    Status

D.    Power

16.  Small-group communication is defined as:

A.    virtual or electronic communication among people who share a common goal or objective.

B.    face-to-face communication among any three or more people.

C.    intrapersonal, as opposed to interpersonal, communication.

D.    face-to-face communication among a small number of people who share a common goal or objective.

17.  The person who manipulates a group in the interests of some other group is called a:

A.    dominator.

B.    help seeker.

C.    recognition seeker.

D.    special-interest pleader.

18.  Any group member can improve the quality of group interaction by

A.    refusing to participate in the conflict phase.

B.    encouraging groupthink.

C.    asking questions of others.

D.    calling for a vote without further discussion.

19.  In which of the following cases will a decision be best done by a group rather than by an individual?

A.    Time pressures are great

B.    A good solution is risky

C.    When the decision is simple and its rationale is apparent to all members

D.    When there is substantial agreement within the group

20.  The need to prove one's worth and competence by making effective decisions is called:

A.    control need.

B.    inclusion need.

C.    provisionalism need.

D.    affection need.

21.  Your immediate family would be considered a social or relationship group.

A.    True

B.    False

22.  In a symposium forum, there is no set pattern for how much time is spent on each part.

A.    True

B.    False

23.  The ideal size for a problem-solving group is twelve.

A.    True

B.    False

24.  One problem with brainstorming is that it can increase group members' inhibitions.

A.    True

B.    False

25.  There is no leader in a focus group.

A.    True

B.    False

                  

26.  The first step in the Delphi method is to define the problem.

A.    True

B.    False

                  

27.  In most group situations, the norms are formal and written.

A.    True

B.    False

                  

28.  Primary groups include decision-making groups and work teams.

A.    True

B.    False

29.  All teams are groups, but not all groups are teams.

A.    True

B.    False

                  

30.  A team requires that people have different and complementary abilities.

A.    True

B.    False

31.  For a group to be truly effective, all members must be committed to the group.

A.    True

B.    False

                  

32.  Productivity is more important for a group than social cohesion.

A.    True

B.    False

                  

33.  Task roles help manage relationships in a group.

A.    True

B.    False

                  

34.  Status refers to an individual's importance and prestige.

A.    True

B.    False

                  

35.  You have coercive power if you can punish others.

A.    True

B.    False

36.  The shop supervisor calls all six employees together to decide how best to solve a problem: too much scrap material is being produced. After listening to the employees’ suggestions and comments, the supervisor decides which course of action to take. Which decision-making method has been used here?

A.    consensus

B.    majority rule

C.    authority

D.    collaboration

37.  Reagan participates in a group meeting in which she—along with three other individuals—delivers prepared remarks to an audience. Afterward, there is a period of questions from the audience. Reagan appears to be participating in a __________.

A.    roundtable

B.    symposium-forum

C.    panel

D.    symposium

38.  Brainstorming fosters cooperative teamwork.

A.    True

B.    False

39.  This is a group of employees who are tasked to investigate and make recommendations for improving the quality of some organizational function.

A.    task force

B.    encounter group

C.    quality circle

D.    focus group

40.  Members of educational or learning groups generally follow the same discussion pattern.

A.    True

B.    False

41.  If a group meeting is in the opening stage, which of the following are you MOST likely to hear?

A.    “Nice to see you again.”

B.    “OK, let’s take a look at our agenda.”

C.    “How long have you been with the company?”

D.    “We need to get marketing involved in this part of the procedure.”

42.  In a low-context culture, most information is communicated __________.

A.    through explicitly stated verbal messages

B.    in written reports and memos

C.    via prior personal knowledge

D.    almost exclusively through nonverbal communication

43.  Perhaps the most popular discussion pattern in an educational or learning group is the __________ pattern.

A.    chronological

B.    topical

C.    cause and effect

D.    problem and solution

44.  A problem-solving group __________.

A.    meets to reach a decision on some issue

B.    aims to help members cope with personal difficulties

C.    helps members acquire new information or skills by sharing knowledge

D.    attempts to increase members’ willingness to act more assertively

45.  Probably the best example of virtual groups serving relationship purposes are __________.

A.    social networking sites such as Facebook

B.    the comments section of blogs

C.    job-search sites such as Monster.com

D.    the review section of online stores such as Amazon

46. Tristan flies from Los Angeles to meet some Japanese business associates in Tokyo. What is MOST likely to surprise him about the meeting?

A.    The meeting will probably be well underway by the time he arrives; meetings in Japan usually begin BEFORE the scheduled time.

B.    His Japanese associates will probably want to socialize for quite a while before getting down to business.

C.    He will be expected to conduct meetings with several different groups at the same time.

D.    His Japanese associates will engage in quite a bit of backslapping and handholding to indicate agreement with him.

46.  Teams are generally relationship focused.

A.    True

B.    False

47.  Alcoholics Anonymous is a classic example of a(n) __________ group.

A.    focus

B.    consciousness-raising

C.    advocacy

D.    intervention

48.  Brainstorming sessions __________.

A.    are especially effective in large group settings

B.    tend to stifle creativity

C.    are usually dominated by one or two group members

D.    lessen group members’ inhibitions

49.  Fifteen minutes after the meeting has begun, Todd rushes in, cup of coffee in hand and with an armful of disorganized papers. Todd has __________.

A.    violated a group norm for attending a meeting

B.    engaged in a face-enhancing strategy

C.    displayed the “avoiding” conflict style

D.    shifted the meeting to a task orientation

50.  Over the course of a small group meeting, the group focus shifts from task to members and back again to task.

A.    True

B.    False

51.  Nevaeh’s group has decided that the solution to increasing sales must not also increase the sales budget. At which stage in the problem-solving sequence is Nevaeh’s group?

A.    evaluate solutions

B.    identify possible solutions

C.    establish criteria for evaluating solutions

D.    define and analyze the problem

52.  In Jeremiah’s group, members discuss their problems and engage in a great deal of self-disclosure. He and other members often talk about their fears and doubts, and get positive and supportive feedback from one another. Jeremiah appears to belong to a(n) __________ group.

A.    work

B.    assertiveness training

C.    encounter

D.    brainstorming

53.  Which of the following is one of the key rules for a brainstorming session?

A.    Try to keep the ideas practical and workable.

B.    It is permissible to extend another group members’ idea, or to link it with your own.

C.    Quality rather than quantity is the goal.

D.    Group members should evaluate ideas as they are presented.

54.  What is the most time-consuming decision-making method?

A.    consensus

B.    laissez-faire

C.    majority rule

D.    authority

55.  There are five people on the bus this morning, yet they would not be considered a small group. Why not?

A.    At least ten people need to be present for a small group to exist.

B.    They are interdependent.

C.    They are not working together toward a common goal.

D.    All members of a small group must have the same status.

56.  It is not possible to provide a standard pattern that all personal growth groups should follow.

A.    True

B.    False

57.  What is the FIRST step in the problem-solving sequence?

A.    establish criteria for evaluating solutions

B.    define and analyze the problem

C.    identify possible solutions

D.    select the best solution

58.  Gabriel is a middle manager at an insurance company. Which of the following situations will probably cause him the MOST anxiety?

A.    He gets together with three of his subordinates to plan out the rest of the work week.

B.    He meets four other middle managers from the office for lunch.

C.    He gets together after work with some of his friends to watch a football game at a local sports bar.

D.    He meets with the president and vice president of the company for his annual performance review.

59.  The Delphi method is especially useful when __________.

A.    the issue is controversial

B.    you want to involve people who are geographically distant from one another

C.    the problem involves large amounts of money

D.    you want dominant members of the group to have the most influence

60.  A focus group leader is usually a professional facilitator rather than a member of the hosting organization itself.

A.    True

B.    False

61.  If you attend a business meeting with associates from __________, be prepared to spend a lot of time getting to know each other before getting down to business.

A.    South Korea

B.    Australia

C.    Canada

D.    Denmark

62.  This is the most demanding kind of group.

A.    focus group

B.    problem-solving group

C.    encounter group

D.    learning group

63.  Which statement about small groups is accurate?

A.    All members of a small group must have exactly the same purpose.

B.    Members of a small group must be independent from one another.

C.    Small groups must meet face-to-face to be effective.

D.    Small groups must have some degree of organization among them.

64.   A technique for analyzing a problem by presenting as many ideas as possible is called __________.

A.    upward communication

B.    brainstorming

C.    grapevining

D.    lateral communication

65.  To obtain a decision, the members of Irene’s group vote on their preferred solution by secret ballot after a limited discussion of the options. It sounds as if Irene’s group is using the __________.

A.    nominal group technique

B.    Delphi method

C.    authoritarian technique

D.    Socratic method

66.  Which of the following would violate a group norm on a Facebook group?

A.    posting more than once daily

B.    writing all of your posts in ALL CAPS

C.    failing to “like” all of your friends’ comments

D.    editing your profile picture

67.  Molly’s mother was recently diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease. Molly attends a meeting at the local hospital with people who are in a similar situation. She hopes to find out more about her mother’s condition, as well as what she can do to help her mother live comfortably. Molly appears to be attending a(n) __________ group.

A.    focus

B.    information-sharing

C.    problem-solving

D.    intervention

68.  Lana makes a commitment to get a report to Jonathan, a member of her work group, so he knows how many parts to order. When Jonathan has that information, he can give a work schedule to another group member, Tessa. All of this illustrates that __________.

A.    small groups consist of no more than three individuals.

B.    in a small group, members are interdependent

C.    members of a group no longer see themselves as individuals

D.    face-to-face groups are more effective than online groups

69.  An educational group discusses the issue of civil rights in the United States, with the discussion progressing from the past into the present. This group is using a __________ pattern to explore the issue.

A.    cause and effect

B.    problem and solution

C.    chronological

D.    structure and function

70.  In a(n) __________, participants gather to help one of their members overcome a personal problem, such as drug addiction or an eating disorder.

A.    consciousness-raising group

B.    intervention group

C.    educational group

D.    brainstorming group

71.  When virtual groups serve relationship and social purposes, they are best thought of as teams.

A.    True

B.    False

72.  The __________ portion of a small group meeting is when members actually discuss the tasks at hand.

A.    business

B.    feedforward

C.    opening

D.    feedback

73.  This is generally considered to be the most difficult rule for group members to follow in a brainstorming session.

A.    The generation of wild and crazy ideas is encouraged.

B.    Quantity of ideas is the goal.

C.    Combinations and extensions of ideas is encouraged.

D.    Verbal and nonverbal evaluation are prohibited during the initial idea-generation session.

74.  Which decision-making method best secures the cooperation and participation of all members in implementing the group’s decision?

A.    authority

B.    majority rule

C.    consensus

D.    laissez-faire

75. At the meeting in which Tanner participated today, the seven group members sat in a circle and chatted informally about how to solve a work issue. Each group member chimed in with a comment when appropriate. What small group format did this meeting take?

A.    panel

B.    symposium

C.    forum

D.    roundtable

76.  Donna often feels like a doormat. She lets her friends and family walk all over her and almost always gives in to their demands. Which type of group would MOST help Donna with her problem?

A.    intervention group

B.    brainstorming group

C.    assertiveness training group

D.    focus group

77.  A personal growth group __________.

A.    aims to help members cope with personal difficulties

B.    meets to reach a decision on some issue

C.    is assembled and subjected to a kind of in-depth interview, often for market research

D.    helps members acquire new information or skills by sharing knowledge

78.  Members of small groups feel that they are, in fact, members of a larger whole.

A.    True

B.    False

79.  Matt’s group has defined the problem they wish to solve and has established criteria for evaluating solutions. What should the next step be?

A.    form a quality circle

B.    select the best solution

C.    form an encounter group

D.    have a brainstorming session

80.  A work team at Banner Publishing consists of an editor, graphic designer, marketing manager, sales manager, photo researcher, and author. In other words, the members of this work team __________.

A.    all have effective human communication skills

B.    operate independent from one another at all times

C.    have clearly defined roles

D.    are relationship focused rather than content focused

81.  The basic assumption of a quality circle is that people who work on similar tasks will be best able to improve their departments by pooling their insights and working through problems they share.

A.    True

B.    False

82.  A small group consists of __________ people.

A.    no more than 3

B.    about 3 to 6

C.    approximately 3 to 12

D.    anywhere from 6 to 15

84.  Brainstorming occurs in three phases: the brainstorming period, the evaluation period, and the implementation period.

A.    True

B.    False

85. The company meeting was scheduled to begin at 10:00, but Alexis was talking on the phone to a client and walked in ten minutes late. Fortunately for Alexis, she is on a business trip to __________, so her behavior is not considered especially egregious.

A.    Hong Kong

B.    Germany

C.    Panama

D.    Canada

Chapter Test

1. What is the purpose of an information-sharing group?

A.    to help people cope with the problems society confronts them with

B.    to solve a particular problem or reach a decision on some issue

C.    to acquire new data or skills by sharing knowledge

D.    to analyze a problem by presenting as many ideas as possible

2. Why is it more likely that a meeting in the United States will get down to business more quickly than a meeting in Japan?

A.    Promptness is valued in the United States, but not valued in Japan.

B.    Japanese people are generally friendlier than Americans, and conduct business in a much more casual way.

C.    Japan is a high-context culture, where much information is already shared and therefore does not need to be explicitly stated.

D.    American business people are usually much busier than Japanese and have little time for socializing.

3. Which of the following statements is MOST likely to be heard during the feedback stage of a small group meeting?

A.    “Today’s meeting will be about finding ways to increase sales.”

B.    “I’m not sure that idea will work. The cost of the components will put us over budget.”

C.    “It’s been a good meeting. See you next week.”

D.    “Can I get you a bottle of water before we begin?”

4. The visitor spaces in a company’s parking lot are filling up by 9:00 each morning. Obviously, employees are parking in the visitor’s spaces. A work team meets to discuss ways to solve this problem. “Encourage carpooling,” one member suggests. “Hire valet parking,” another says. “How about we get some shuttle buses, or maybe ticket employees who park there?” asks a third. The ideas keep coming for 15 minutes or so. This appears to be a good example of a __________.

A.    brainstorming group

B.    focus group

C.    encounter group

D.    consciousness-raising group

5. Amber and D’Juan belong to a Special Needs Parent Group. Group members are all parents of children with special needs of one type or another. Every week the group meets to discuss an issue relevant to their kids: estate planning, education, bullying, and so forth. This appears to be an example of a(n) __________.

A.    brainstorming session

B.    assertiveness training group

C.    consciousness-raising group

D.    problem-solving group

6. Which of the following is an example of a personal growth group?

A.    focus group

B.    intervention group

C.    problem-solving group

D.    brainstorming group

7. The __________ is a method of problem solving that uses limited discussion and confidential voting to obtain a group decision.

A.    majority-rule method

B.    authoritative technique

C.    focus group approach

D.    nominal group technique

8. Which statement about a team is correct?

A.    Team members’ roles are clearly defined.

B.    A team possesses none of the characteristics of a small group.

C.    Once a team is formed, it is almost never disbanded.

D.    Teams are generally relationship focused.

9. You are in a problem-solving group, but you never meet with other group members face-to-face. Instead, you are told what the problem is and anonymously contribute several solutions in writing. Everyone’s ideas are combined, written up, and distributed to all members, who select the three or four best ideas from this composite list. The process is repeated until a single solution is chosen. This is an example of __________.

A.    the Delphi method

B.    a brainstorming session

C.    an encounter group

D.    a quality circle

10. Which of the following would BEST be an example of a small group?

A.    Seven people ride a city bus downtown one Friday morning.

B.    Fifty audience members wait for a string quartet performance to begin in a concert hall.

C.    Three people enter an elevator together; one gets off on the 6th floor while the other two get off on the 8th floor.

D.    Four workers pour concrete to build a new driveway.

11. Empathy, supportiveness, and immediacy skills are especially important for members of an intervention group.

A.    True

B.    False

12. After a problem-solving group proposes possible solutions, the next step is to __________.

A.    establish criteria for evaluating them

B.    select the best solution

C.    evaluate each one

D.    implement a plan

13. The consensus method of decision-making __________.

A.    requires a unanimous vote for the group to reach agreement

B.    is probably the best way to make a decision if you want group members to “buy into” it

C.    is the most efficient of the decision-making methods

D.    requires every individual group member to agree with the solution

14. The Knox Awning Company is having trouble keeping up with orders because the stockroom is continually running out of canvas fabric, which is used to make the awnings. A work team is assembled to discuss this situation. This is most likely which kind of group?

A.    encounter group

B.    problem-solving group

C.    intervention group

D.    personal growth group

15. The shop supervisor calls all six employees together to decide how best to solve a problem: too much scrap material is being produced. After the employees discuss possible solutions, the supervisor asks everyone to vote on the best course of action. Whichever proposal gets the most votes is the one the company will follow. Which decision-making method has been used here?

A.    consensus

B.    majority rule

C.    authority

D.    laissez-faire

16. What is the ideal size for a quality circle?

A.    2 or 3 employees

B.    3 to 6 employees

C.    6 to 12 employees

D.    12 to 15 employees

17. The only real skill a member of a problem-solving group requires is a thorough knowledge of the particular problem in question.

A.    True

B.    False

18. If a group gets much larger than six, even online communication becomes difficult.

A.    True

B.    False

19. At no stage in a brainstorming session is criticism of ideas permitted.

A.    True

B.    False

20. In which situation is Kendra likely to feel the MOST apprehension?

A.    Kendra is going out dancing with three friends from work.

B.    Kendra has been chosen to participate in a quality circle meeting, which is being held at work this afternoon.

C.    Kendra is planning on spending Thanksgiving day with her parents and two younger siblings.

D.    Kendra carpools to work with four co-workers, an arrangement that has been working well for a couple of years now.

21.  A __________ group is assembled and subjected to a kind of in-depth interview, often for market research.

A.    personal growth

B.    focus

C.    encounter

D.    consciousness-raising

22. Rules that help team members identify which behaviors are appropriate and which are inappropriate are known as __________.

A.    group norms

B.    ethical constraints

C.    a mission statement

D.    a code of ethics

23. In the small group format known as the __________, group members are “experts” who sit in front of an audience participating informally and without any set pattern of who speaks when.

A.    seminar

B.    roundtable

C.    forum

D.    panel

24. Which type of personal growth group is also known as a sensitivity group?

A.    encounter group

B.    assertiveness training group

C.    consciousness-raising group

D.    intervention group

25. Personal-growth groups are very easy and reasonable to set up and participate in.

A.    True

B.    False